Sistemas eleitorais e integridade eleitoral
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O que são sistemas eleitorais, como variam ao redor do mundo e quais as suas consequências para outros elementos da vida política de um país? Este artigo busca refletir sobre essas questões de maneira didática, percorrendo as principais famílias de sistemas eleitorais – majoritário, proporcional e misto – e variações dentro destas. Demonstramos ainda que sistemas eleitorais específicos não geram necessariamente eleições melhores ou piores. Com dados do International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance e do Electoral Integrity Project mostramos que ainda que eleições com sistemas proporcionais apresentem consistentemente melhores índices de integridade eleitoral, isso não se dá em razão do sistema eleitoral em si, mas um elemento anterior influencia tanto a adoção de determinado sistema quanto na qualidade da eleição: a qualidade do regime. Autocracias, que por definição realizam eleições enviesadas, onde o incumbente não pode perder, adotam sistemas majoritários com maior frequência, enquanto democracias, que realizam eleições competitivas, adotam mais frequentemente o sistema proporcional.
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Rebouças Batista, I., & Lins, R. (2022). Sistemas eleitorais e integridade eleitoral. Revista Sul-Americana De Ciência Política, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.15210/rsulacp.v8i1.22363
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BIRCH, Sarah; VAN HAM, Carolien. Getting away with foul play? The importance of formal and
informal oversight institutions for electoral integrity. European Journal of Political Research, v. 56,
n. 3, p. 487-511, 2017.
BLAIS, André; MASSICOTTE, Louis. Electoral Systems. In: LEDUC, Lawrence; NIEMI, Richard
G.; NORRIS, Pippa (Eds.). Comparing Democracies. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 1996.
BORMANN, Nils-Christian; GOLDER, Matt. Democratic Electoral Systems around the world, 1946-
2011. Electoral Studies, v. 32, p. 360-369, 2013.
BOSLAUGH, Sarah. Statistics in a Nutshell. Sebastopol: O’Reilly. 2012.
CAUL KITTILSON, Miki; SCHWINDT-BAYER, Leslie A. The Gender Effects of Electoral
Institutions: political engagement and participation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
CHEESEMAN, Nic; KLAS, Brian. How to Rig an Election. New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 2018.
COPPEDGE, Michael et al. Conceptualizing and measuring democracy: A new approach.
Perspectives on Politics, v. 9, n. 2, p. 247-267, 2011.
COPPEDGE, Michael et al. V-Dem Dataset v11. 1 (22 abr. 2021). 2021. Disponível em:
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3831905. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
DAHL, Robert A. Polyarchy, Participation and Opposition. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 1971.
DAHL, Robert A. Democracy and Its Critics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
DONNO, Daniela. Defending Democratic Norms: international actors and the politics of electoral
misconduct. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
DUVERGER, Maurice. Os Partidos Políticos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1951.
EDGELL, Amanda et al. When and where do elections matter? a global test of the democratization
by elections hypothesis, 1900-2010. Democratization, v. 25, n. 3, p. 422-444, 2018.
FIGUEIREDO FILHO, Dalson. Métodos Quantitativos em Ciência Política. Curitiba: InterSaberes,
2019.
GANDHI, Jennifer; HELLER, Abigail L. Electoral systems in authoritarian states. In: HERRON,
Erik S.; PEKKANEN, Robert J.; SHUGART, Matthew S. (Ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Electoral
Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
GEDDES, Barbara. Why dictators hold semi-competitive elections and encourage the use of semiindependent courts: a comment on Thornhill and Smirnova’s “litigation and political transformation”.
Theory and Society, v. 47, n. 5, p. 595-601, 2018.
HAMILTON, Alexander; MADISON, James; JAY, John. The federalist papers. New Haven and
London: Yale University Press, 2009.
HELD, David. Models of Democracy. Redwood City: Stanford University Press, 2006.
HYDE, Susan. The Pseudo-democrat’s Dilemma: why election observation became an international
norm. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011.
HYDE, Susan D.; MARINOV, Nikolay. Which elections can be lost? Political analysis, v. 20, n. 2,
p. 191-210, 2012.
IDEA. Concepção de Sistemas Eleitorais, 2005. Disponível em: https://www.idea.int/sites/default/fi
les/publications/chapters/electoral-system-design/concepcao-de-sistemas-eleitorais-uma-visaogeral-do-novo-guia-do-international-idea.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
IDEA. Electoral System Design Database, 2018. Disponível em: https://www.idea.int/datatools/data/electoral-system-design. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
KAM, Christopher; BERTELLI, Anthony M.; HELD, Alexander. The Electoral System, the Party
System and Accountability in Parliamentary Government. American Political Science Review, v. 114,
n. 3, p. 744-760, 2020.
KELLEY, Judith. Monitoring Democracy: when international election observation works, and why
it often fails. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012.
KING, James D. Single-Member Districts and the Representation of Women in American State
Legislatures: the effects of electoral system change. State Politics and Policy Quarterly, v. 2, n. 2, p.
161-175, 2002.
LAAKSO, Markku; TAAGEPERA, Rein. “Effective” Number of Parties: a measure with application
to West Europe. Comparative Political Studies, v. 12, n. 1, p. 3-27, 1979.
LEVITSKY, Steven; WAY, Lucan A. Competitive authoritarianism: Hybrid regimes after the Cold
War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
LIJPHART, Arend. Electoral Systems and Party Systems: a study of twenty-seven democracies,
1945-1990. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1994.
LIJPHART, Arend. Constitutional Design for Divided Societies. Journal of Democracy, v. 15, n. 2,
p. 96-109, 2004.
LOCKWOOD, Sarah J., KRÖNKE, Matthias. Do Electoral Systems Affect How Citizens Hold their
Government Accountable? Evidence from Africa. Democratization, v. 28, n. 3, p. 583-603, 2021.
LÜHRMANN, Anna; TANNENBERG, Marcus; LINDBERG, Staffan I. Regimes of the world
(RoW): Opening new avenues for the comparative study of political regimes. Politics and
Governance, v. 6, n. 1, p. 60-77, 2018.
MAGALONI, Beatriz. Elections under autocracy and the strategic game of fraud. (Revised version
of a paper presented at the 2005 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association).
2007. Disponível em: http://www.stevendroper.com/magaloni.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
MAINWARING, Scott. Politicians, Parties, and Electoral Systems: Brazil in comparative
perspective. Comparative Politics, v. 24, n. 1, p. 21-43. 1991.
MANIN, Bernard. The Principles of Representative Government. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1997.
MARSHALL, Monty G.; GURR, Ted Robert. Polity 5: Political regime characteristics and
transitions, 1800-2018. Center for Systemic Peace, 2020. Disponível em:
http://www.systemicpeace.org/inscr/p5manualv2018.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
NICOLAU, Jairo. Sistemas Eleitorais. Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV, 2004.
NORRIS, Pippa. Electoral Systems: proportional, majoritarian and mixed systems. International
Political Science Review, v. 13, n. 3, p. 297-312, 1997.
NORRIS, Pippa. The new research agenda studying electoral integrity. Electoral Studies, v. 32, n. 3,
p. 563-575, 2013.
NORRIS, Pippa. Why American Elections Are Flawed (and How to Fix Them). Cornell Selects: New
York, 2016.
NORRIS, Pippa. Conclusions: The new research agenda on electoral management. International
Political Science Review, v. 40, n. 3, p. 391-403, 2019.
NORRIS, Pippa; FRANK, Richard W.; COMA, Ferran M. i. Measuring electoral integrity around the
world: a new dataset. PS: Political Science & Politics, v. 47, n. 4, p. 789-798, 2014.
NORRIS, Pippa; GRÖMPING, Max. Codebook – The expert survey of Perceptions of Electoral
Integrity, Release 7.0, (PEI_7.0). The Electoral Integrity Project, University of Sydney, 2019.
PRZEWORSKI, Adam. Ama a incerteza e serás democrático. Novos Estudos CEBRAP, ed. 9, v. 2,
p. 36-46, 1987.
PRZEWORSKI, Adam. Democracy and the Market: political and economic reforms in Eastern
Europe and Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
RAFFLER, Pia. Does Political Oversight of the Bureaucracy Increase Accountability? Field
experimental evidence from an electoral autocracy. 2019. Disponível em: http://piaraffler.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/06/Raffler_Political-Oversight_June2019.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
RIKER, William H. Duverger’s Law revisited. In: GROFMAN, Bernard; LIJPHART, Arend (Eds.).
Electoral laws and their political consequences. Nova York: Aghaton Press, 1986.
SCHEDLER, Andreas. Elections without democracy: The menu of manipulation. Journal of
democracy, v. 13, n. 2, p. 36-50, 2002.
SCHEDLER, Andreas et al. (Eds.). Electoral authoritarianism: The dynamics of unfree competition.
Bouder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006.
SHUGART, Matthew. Comparative Electoral Systems Research: the maturation of a field and new
challenges ahead. In: GALLAGHER, Michael; MITHCELL, Paul (Eds.). The Politics of Electoral
Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
SINGER, Matthew M. Was Duverger Correct? Single-member district election outcomes in fiftythree countries. British Journal of Political Science, v. 43, n. 1, p. 201-220, 2013.
WOLF, Linder; IFF, Andrea. Swiss Political System. FDFA. 2010. Disponível em: https://www.wolflinder.ch/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Swiss-political-system.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
informal oversight institutions for electoral integrity. European Journal of Political Research, v. 56,
n. 3, p. 487-511, 2017.
BLAIS, André; MASSICOTTE, Louis. Electoral Systems. In: LEDUC, Lawrence; NIEMI, Richard
G.; NORRIS, Pippa (Eds.). Comparing Democracies. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 1996.
BORMANN, Nils-Christian; GOLDER, Matt. Democratic Electoral Systems around the world, 1946-
2011. Electoral Studies, v. 32, p. 360-369, 2013.
BOSLAUGH, Sarah. Statistics in a Nutshell. Sebastopol: O’Reilly. 2012.
CAUL KITTILSON, Miki; SCHWINDT-BAYER, Leslie A. The Gender Effects of Electoral
Institutions: political engagement and participation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
CHEESEMAN, Nic; KLAS, Brian. How to Rig an Election. New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 2018.
COPPEDGE, Michael et al. Conceptualizing and measuring democracy: A new approach.
Perspectives on Politics, v. 9, n. 2, p. 247-267, 2011.
COPPEDGE, Michael et al. V-Dem Dataset v11. 1 (22 abr. 2021). 2021. Disponível em:
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3831905. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
DAHL, Robert A. Polyarchy, Participation and Opposition. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 1971.
DAHL, Robert A. Democracy and Its Critics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
DONNO, Daniela. Defending Democratic Norms: international actors and the politics of electoral
misconduct. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
DUVERGER, Maurice. Os Partidos Políticos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1951.
EDGELL, Amanda et al. When and where do elections matter? a global test of the democratization
by elections hypothesis, 1900-2010. Democratization, v. 25, n. 3, p. 422-444, 2018.
FIGUEIREDO FILHO, Dalson. Métodos Quantitativos em Ciência Política. Curitiba: InterSaberes,
2019.
GANDHI, Jennifer; HELLER, Abigail L. Electoral systems in authoritarian states. In: HERRON,
Erik S.; PEKKANEN, Robert J.; SHUGART, Matthew S. (Ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Electoral
Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
GEDDES, Barbara. Why dictators hold semi-competitive elections and encourage the use of semiindependent courts: a comment on Thornhill and Smirnova’s “litigation and political transformation”.
Theory and Society, v. 47, n. 5, p. 595-601, 2018.
HAMILTON, Alexander; MADISON, James; JAY, John. The federalist papers. New Haven and
London: Yale University Press, 2009.
HELD, David. Models of Democracy. Redwood City: Stanford University Press, 2006.
HYDE, Susan. The Pseudo-democrat’s Dilemma: why election observation became an international
norm. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011.
HYDE, Susan D.; MARINOV, Nikolay. Which elections can be lost? Political analysis, v. 20, n. 2,
p. 191-210, 2012.
IDEA. Concepção de Sistemas Eleitorais, 2005. Disponível em: https://www.idea.int/sites/default/fi
les/publications/chapters/electoral-system-design/concepcao-de-sistemas-eleitorais-uma-visaogeral-do-novo-guia-do-international-idea.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
IDEA. Electoral System Design Database, 2018. Disponível em: https://www.idea.int/datatools/data/electoral-system-design. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
KAM, Christopher; BERTELLI, Anthony M.; HELD, Alexander. The Electoral System, the Party
System and Accountability in Parliamentary Government. American Political Science Review, v. 114,
n. 3, p. 744-760, 2020.
KELLEY, Judith. Monitoring Democracy: when international election observation works, and why
it often fails. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012.
KING, James D. Single-Member Districts and the Representation of Women in American State
Legislatures: the effects of electoral system change. State Politics and Policy Quarterly, v. 2, n. 2, p.
161-175, 2002.
LAAKSO, Markku; TAAGEPERA, Rein. “Effective” Number of Parties: a measure with application
to West Europe. Comparative Political Studies, v. 12, n. 1, p. 3-27, 1979.
LEVITSKY, Steven; WAY, Lucan A. Competitive authoritarianism: Hybrid regimes after the Cold
War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
LIJPHART, Arend. Electoral Systems and Party Systems: a study of twenty-seven democracies,
1945-1990. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1994.
LIJPHART, Arend. Constitutional Design for Divided Societies. Journal of Democracy, v. 15, n. 2,
p. 96-109, 2004.
LOCKWOOD, Sarah J., KRÖNKE, Matthias. Do Electoral Systems Affect How Citizens Hold their
Government Accountable? Evidence from Africa. Democratization, v. 28, n. 3, p. 583-603, 2021.
LÜHRMANN, Anna; TANNENBERG, Marcus; LINDBERG, Staffan I. Regimes of the world
(RoW): Opening new avenues for the comparative study of political regimes. Politics and
Governance, v. 6, n. 1, p. 60-77, 2018.
MAGALONI, Beatriz. Elections under autocracy and the strategic game of fraud. (Revised version
of a paper presented at the 2005 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association).
2007. Disponível em: http://www.stevendroper.com/magaloni.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
MAINWARING, Scott. Politicians, Parties, and Electoral Systems: Brazil in comparative
perspective. Comparative Politics, v. 24, n. 1, p. 21-43. 1991.
MANIN, Bernard. The Principles of Representative Government. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1997.
MARSHALL, Monty G.; GURR, Ted Robert. Polity 5: Political regime characteristics and
transitions, 1800-2018. Center for Systemic Peace, 2020. Disponível em:
http://www.systemicpeace.org/inscr/p5manualv2018.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
NICOLAU, Jairo. Sistemas Eleitorais. Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV, 2004.
NORRIS, Pippa. Electoral Systems: proportional, majoritarian and mixed systems. International
Political Science Review, v. 13, n. 3, p. 297-312, 1997.
NORRIS, Pippa. The new research agenda studying electoral integrity. Electoral Studies, v. 32, n. 3,
p. 563-575, 2013.
NORRIS, Pippa. Why American Elections Are Flawed (and How to Fix Them). Cornell Selects: New
York, 2016.
NORRIS, Pippa. Conclusions: The new research agenda on electoral management. International
Political Science Review, v. 40, n. 3, p. 391-403, 2019.
NORRIS, Pippa; FRANK, Richard W.; COMA, Ferran M. i. Measuring electoral integrity around the
world: a new dataset. PS: Political Science & Politics, v. 47, n. 4, p. 789-798, 2014.
NORRIS, Pippa; GRÖMPING, Max. Codebook – The expert survey of Perceptions of Electoral
Integrity, Release 7.0, (PEI_7.0). The Electoral Integrity Project, University of Sydney, 2019.
PRZEWORSKI, Adam. Ama a incerteza e serás democrático. Novos Estudos CEBRAP, ed. 9, v. 2,
p. 36-46, 1987.
PRZEWORSKI, Adam. Democracy and the Market: political and economic reforms in Eastern
Europe and Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
RAFFLER, Pia. Does Political Oversight of the Bureaucracy Increase Accountability? Field
experimental evidence from an electoral autocracy. 2019. Disponível em: http://piaraffler.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/06/Raffler_Political-Oversight_June2019.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.
RIKER, William H. Duverger’s Law revisited. In: GROFMAN, Bernard; LIJPHART, Arend (Eds.).
Electoral laws and their political consequences. Nova York: Aghaton Press, 1986.
SCHEDLER, Andreas. Elections without democracy: The menu of manipulation. Journal of
democracy, v. 13, n. 2, p. 36-50, 2002.
SCHEDLER, Andreas et al. (Eds.). Electoral authoritarianism: The dynamics of unfree competition.
Bouder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006.
SHUGART, Matthew. Comparative Electoral Systems Research: the maturation of a field and new
challenges ahead. In: GALLAGHER, Michael; MITHCELL, Paul (Eds.). The Politics of Electoral
Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
SINGER, Matthew M. Was Duverger Correct? Single-member district election outcomes in fiftythree countries. British Journal of Political Science, v. 43, n. 1, p. 201-220, 2013.
WOLF, Linder; IFF, Andrea. Swiss Political System. FDFA. 2010. Disponível em: https://www.wolflinder.ch/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Swiss-political-system.pdf. Acesso em: 09 maio 2022.